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Pictured is the Apollo lunar module during rendezvous inlunar orbit with the command module. If rendezvous around the moonfailed, the astronauts would have been too far away to have beensaved. The large dark-colored area in the background is Smith'sSea. The Earth rises above the lunar horizon.
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President John F. Kennedy's decision in 1961 to land a man onthe moon "before the decade is out" meant that NASA had to movequickly to find the best method of accomplishing the journey. NASAgave serious consideration to three options: Initially, directascent; then, Earth-orbit rendezvous (EOR), and, finally, adarkhorse candidate, lunar-orbit rendezvous (LOR).
Direct ascent was basically the method that had been pictured inscience fiction novels and Hollywood movies. A massive rocket thesize of a battleship would be fired directly to the moon, land andthen blast off for home directly from the lunar surface. The tripwould be like that of a chartered bus, moving from point A to pointB and back to A again in one brute of a vehicle.
The demise of direct ascent led to a scrupulous evaluation ofthe second option: Earth-orbit rendezvous. The main idea of EOR wasto launch two pieces into space independently using advanced Saturnrockets that were then in development; have the two piecesrendezvous and dock in Earth orbit; assemble, fuel, and detach alunar mission vehicle from the modules that had joined up; and thenproceed with that bolstered ship, exactly as in the direct flightmode, to the moon and back to Earth orbit. The advantage of EOR wasthat it required a pair of less powerful rockets that were alreadynearing the end of their development.
Dr. John C. Houbolt explains the lunar orbit rendezvousconcept that, in the opinion of many historians, was chief amongthe reasons why the U.S., in less than a decade, managedhumankind's first extraterrestrial excursions.
President John F. Kennedy's decision in 1961 to land a man onthe moon 'before the decade is out' meant that NASA had to movequickly to find the best method of accomplishing the journey. NASAgave serious consideration to three options: initially, directascent; then Earth-orbit rendezvous (EOR); and, finally, adarkhorse candidate, lunar-orbit rendezvous (LOR).
One of these groups was the Lunar Mission Steering Group headedby Clinton E. Brown, head of the Theoretical Mechanics Division.The other was the Rendezvous Committee headed by Dr. John C.Houbolt, then the assistant chief of the Dynamics Load Division.Brainstorming by these two Langley groups, done at firstindependently, led to an intensive analysis of what were thenthought to be two distinct subjects: one, the mechanics of a moontrip; and, two, the role of rendezvous in the operations of anEarth-orbiting space station. The idea of putting the two analysestogether then led a few creative minds within the Langley studygroups to consider the advantages of LOR for a manned lunarmission.
The first of these studies, a very brief paper by William H.Michael, Jr., examined the benefits of "parking" the Earth-returnpropulsion portion of a spacecraft in orbit around the moon duringa landing mission. The main benefit, according to Michael'sunpublished 1959 paper, was the weight advantage of a small lunarlander needing less fuel. The chief problems were the"complications involved in requiring a rendezvous with thecomponents left in the parking orbit."
Twenty months later, on July 11, 1962, after much technicaldebate and in-fighting, Seamans and NASA Administrator James E.Webb announced during a press conference at NASA Headquarters inWashington, D.C., that lunar-orbit rendezvous had been selected asthe primary mission mode for the initial manned moon landing.Considering the strong opposition to LOR during NASA's intensiveevaluation of possible mission modes for Apollo, the choice seemedquite unlikely.
When Langley engineers first suggested the concept oflunar-orbit rendezvous, NASA had rejected it out of hand for beingtoo complicated and risky. If rendezvous had to be part of ProjectApollo, critics of LOR felt that it should be done only in Earthorbit. if that rendezvous failed, the threatened astronauts couldbe brought back home simply by allowing the orbit of theirspacecraft to deteriorate. But, if a rendezvous around the moonfailed, the astronauts would be too far away to be saved. Nothingcould be done.
But in 1962 all these advantages were theoretical. On the otherhand, the fear that American astronauts might be left in anorbiting coffin was quite real. It was a specter that haunted thedreams of those responsible for the Apollo program and one thatmade objective evaluation of the lunar-orbit rendezvous concept byNASA unusually difficult.
The lunar module ascent stage (upper portion) is shown usingits ascent engine to rocket back into lunar orbit and rendezvouswith the Command Module (still orbiting the moon). Success dependedon Langley's ability to train the astronauts to master thetechniques of landing the lunar module on the lunar surface andreturning the ascent stage to orbit to dock with the mothership.
In late 1961 and early 1962 NASA convened a number of internaltask forces to help in the selection of the mission mode forApollo. One of these committees (the Lundin Committee) evaluatedthe option of direct ascent and another (the Heaton Committee)investigated the feasibility of Earth-orbit rendezvous. But therewas no committee to look into LOR. Only one of these study groups(the Lundin Committee) wanted to hear anything about lunar-orbitrendezvous, and in its final report LOR finished a distant thirdbehind EOR and direct ascent.
But at least one tenacious Langley engineer, Dr. John Houbolt,would not let the advantages of LOR be ignored. As a member of ofLunar Mission Steering Group, Houbolt had been studying varioustechnical aspects of space rendezvous since 1959 and was convinced,like several others at Langley, that LOR was not only the mostfeasible way to make it to the moon before the decade was out, itwas the only way. He had reported his findings to NASA on variousoccasions but felt strongly that the internal task forces (to whichhe made presentations) were following arbitrarily established"ground rules." According to Houbolt, these ground rules wereconstraining NASA's thinking about the lunar mission -- and causingLOR to be ruled out before it was fairly considered.
Lunar-orbit rendezvous required docking the lunar module withthe command module in lunar orbit. Astronauts practiced the complextask of separating and uniting spacecraft to master dockingtechniques with Langley's Rendezvous and Docking Simulator, today aNational Historic Landmark, pictured.
In November 1961, Houbolt took the bold step of skipping properchannels and writing a private letter, nine pages long, directly toSeamans, the associate administrator. "Somewhat as a voice in thewilderness," Houbolt protested LOR's exclusion. "Do we want to goto the moon or not?" the Langley engineer asked. "Why is Nova, withits ponderous size simply just accepted, and why is a much lessgrandiose scheme involving rendezvous ostracized or put on thedefensive? I fully realize that contacting you in this manner issomewhat unorthodox," Houbolt admitted, "but the issues at stakeare crucial enough to us all that an unusual course iswarranted."
In the following months, NASA did just that, and to the surpriseof many both inside and outside the agency, the darkhorsecandidate, LOR, quickly became the front runner. Several factorsdecided the issue in its favor. First, there was growingdisenchantment with the idea of direct ascent due to the time andmoney it was going to take to develop the huge Nova rocket. Second,there was increasing technical apprehension over how the relativelylarge spacecraft demanded even by Earth-orbit rendezvous would beable to maneuver to a soft landing on the moon. As one NASAengineer who changed his mind explained: "The business ofeyeballing that thing down to the moon really didn't have asatisfactory answer. The best thing about LOR was that it allowedus to build a separate vehicle for landing."
Thousands of factors contributed to the ultimate success ofApollo, but no single factor was more essential than the concept oflunar-orbit rendezvous. Without NASA's adoption of thisstubbornly-held minority opinion, we may still have gotten to themoon, but almost certainly it would not have been accomplised bythe end of the decade, as President Kennedy had wanted.
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"We're still pushing for 'Rendezvous With Rama,'" he said. "That's a got-to-be-done movie. Just have to figure out how to do it. I've been trying for -- I don't know -- 15 years now to get a script. You would think it was easier than it is. It's not; it's really hard."
This video shows the launch of the New Horizons spacecraft in January 2006. New Horizons, bound for a rendezvous with Pluto in 2015, rocketed skyward from Cape Canaveral in Florida at 2 PM on January 19, 2006. The spacecraft was carried aloft by an Atlas V launch vehicle.
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